📚 Evidence-Based Parent Guide

Every child can learn to read.
Here's how to help yours.

A research-backed guide to literacy milestones, free screening tools, and proven at-home strategies — organized by your child's age.

View Milestones by Age → Find Free Screeners

What is the Science of Reading?

The Science of Reading is a body of over 50 years of research from cognitive science, psychology, and linguistics that shows exactly how the brain learns to read. It tells us reading is not a natural skill — it must be explicitly taught through these five interconnected pillars:

👂

Phonological Awareness

Ability to hear and manipulate the sounds (phonemes and syllables) in spoken language. The foundation of reading.

🔤

Phonics

Understanding that letters represent sounds (the alphabetic principle). Decoding words by sounding them out.

⚡

Fluency

Reading accurately, quickly, and with expression. Fluency frees the brain to focus on meaning rather than decoding.

💬

Vocabulary

Knowing the meaning of words. Rich vocabulary directly improves reading comprehension and writing.

🧠

Comprehension

Understanding, analyzing, and thinking critically about what is read. The ultimate goal of reading.

Research shows that 95% of children can learn to read with systematic, explicit instruction in these areas. Early identification and support are key.

Developmental Milestones

Literacy Milestones by Age

These benchmarks are based on research and professional guidelines (IDA, NAEP, and AAP). Every child develops at their own pace — these are guidelines, not strict rules.

Phonological Awareness
Phonics/Print
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Oral Language
👶

Birth through Age 2

The "pre-literacy" window. Language exposure and rich talk build the brain architecture reading will depend on.

🗣 Oral Language

  • Responds to voices and sounds at birth
  • Babbles and experiments with sounds (3–6 months)
  • Says first words around 12 months
  • Uses 50+ words by 18 months
  • Combines two words ("more milk") by 24 months

👂 Early Phonological

  • Enjoys rhyming songs and finger plays
  • Recognizes and responds to their own name
  • Begins to attend to the sounds of language (not just meaning)
  • Enjoys silly word play and repetition

📖 Print & Concepts

  • Shows interest in books (touching, mouthing pages)
  • Looks at pictures when named
  • Pats pictures in books by 12 months
  • Points to pictures when asked by 18–24 months
  • Listens to short, simple stories

✏️ Fine Motor (Pre-Writing)

  • Grasps objects and transfers hand-to-hand (4–6 months)
  • Bangs and manipulates objects with both hands
  • Begins finger feeding and pincer grasp (8–12 months)
  • Scribbles spontaneously with crayon by 15–18 months
  • Imitates vertical and horizontal strokes by 24 months
🏠 What You Can Do at Home
💬

Talk All Day Long

Narrate your actions ("I'm washing dishes now"), describe what you see, and respond warmly to every vocalization. Every word your baby hears builds vocabulary.

🎵

Sing Songs & Nursery Rhymes

"Twinkle Twinkle," "Itsy Bitsy Spider," and "Old MacDonald" train the brain to hear individual sounds — a critical pre-reading skill.

📚

Read Daily from Day One

Point to pictures, name objects, use silly voices. Babies don't need to understand — the shared attention and language exposure is what matters.

🔄

Serve & Return

Respond to your baby's sounds and gestures. This "conversational" back-and-forth builds the neural pathways for language and literacy.

⚠ Talk to Your Pediatrician If...

Not babbling by 9 months
No first words by 12–15 months
Not pointing or waving by 12 months
Fewer than 50 words by 24 months
Not combining two words by 24 months
Loss of previously gained language skills at any age
🧒

Ages 3–4 (Pre-K)

Phonological awareness blooms. Children become aware that words are made of sounds, and curiosity about print emerges.

👂 Phonological Awareness

  • Recognizes and produces rhymes (cat/hat/bat)
  • Claps syllables in words (bas-ket-ball = 3 claps)
  • Identifies initial sounds in words ("snake starts with /s/")
  • Plays with alliteration (Peter Piper picked...)

🔤 Print Awareness

  • Knows print goes left-to-right, top-to-bottom
  • Understands books have a front/back
  • Recognizes their own name in print
  • Begins to identify some letters (especially in name)
  • Understands that print carries meaning

💬 Vocabulary

  • Uses 1,000–2,000 words expressively
  • Asks "why" questions frequently
  • Understands descriptive words (big, soft, fast)
  • Follows 2–3 step directions

📖 Comprehension

  • Retells simple stories in order
  • Answers "what," "who," and "where" questions
  • Can predict what might happen in a story
  • Connects stories to personal experiences

✏️ Writing & Fine Motor

  • Holds crayon/marker with emerging tripod grip
  • Draws circles, crosses, and simple shapes
  • Copies some letters, especially those in own name
  • Scribbles with left-to-right directionality
  • "Writes" stories through drawing + scribble
  • Shows consistent hand preference (usually by age 4)
🏠 What You Can Do at Home
🎮

Sound Games

Play "I Spy" using sounds ("I spy something that starts with /b/"). Clap syllables together. Make up silly rhymes. These games build phonological awareness.

✏️

Letter Play

Use magnetic letters, foam letters in the bath, or trace letters in sand. Focus on the 5–6 letters in their name first, then others they're curious about.

📖

Dialogic Reading

Instead of just reading, pause and ask questions: "What do you think happens next?" "Why is she sad?" This builds vocabulary and comprehension dramatically.

🖊

Encourage Writing

Let them scribble and "write" stories. If they ask how to write a letter, show them. Don't correct — encourage! This builds print motivation.

⚠ Watch For at Ages 3–4

Difficulty saying new words (getting stuck)
Not able to rhyme by age 4
Hard to understand speech (more than 25% unclear at 3)
Not recognizing any letters by 4, especially in name
Limited interest in books or being read to
Frequent ear infections or hearing concerns
Cannot copy simple shapes (circle, cross) by age 4
Very poor pencil/crayon grip — fist-gripping after age 3½
Avoids all drawing, coloring, or mark-making activities
No established hand preference by age 4
🌟

Kindergarten (Age 5–6)

The formal reading journey begins. Phonics instruction starts in earnest. By end of K, most children are decoding simple words.

👂 Phonological Awareness

  • Isolates beginning, middle, and ending sounds
  • Blends 3 sounds to make words (/c/ /a/ /t/ → "cat")
  • Segments words into individual phonemes
  • Substitutes sounds ("Change /c/ in cat to /b/ — bat!")

🔤 Phonics

  • Names all 26 letters and most sounds
  • Decodes simple CVC words (cat, big, hop)
  • Recognizes 20–40 sight words (the, is, can, we)
  • Begins to spell simple words phonetically

⚡ Early Fluency

  • Reads simple decodable books with support
  • Reads ~30 words per minute by end of K
  • Points to words while reading (one-to-one matching)

💬 Vocabulary

  • Understands ~5,000–6,000 words
  • Learns and uses new words from books and instruction
  • Can explain word meanings ("hungry means wanting food")

✏️ Writing & Encoding

  • Writes first and last name independently
  • Writes most uppercase letters legibly
  • Begins writing lowercase letters
  • Uses invented/phonetic spelling (e.g., "MI KAT" for "my cat")
  • Writes letters from left to right, top to bottom
  • Uses spacing between some words
  • Dictates or writes simple sentences with support
🏠 What You Can Do at Home
🎯

Sound Stretching

Say a word slowly, stretching each sound: "ssssssss-uuuuu-nnn." Ask your child to do the same. This phoneme segmentation skill is strongly predictive of reading success.

📋

Sight Word Practice

Use flashcards, go-fish games, or write words on sticky notes around the house. Mastering high-frequency words reduces cognitive load when reading.

📚

Decodable Readers

Use books that match what your child is learning in phonics (short vowels, consonant blends). Bob Books and Flyleaf Publishing have excellent free/low-cost options.

🌍

Build Background Knowledge

Visit museums, watch nature documentaries, visit the library. Rich world knowledge dramatically improves comprehension as reading skills develop.

⚠ Kindergarten Red Flags

Doesn't know most letter names/sounds by mid-year
Cannot blend 3 sounds into a word by end of K
Frequently guesses words by pictures rather than letters
Cannot read any simple CVC words by end of K
Reverses letters (b/d, p/q) frequently after mid-K
Family history of dyslexia (increases risk significantly)
Cannot write own first name by end of K
Pencil grip is very painful-looking or extremely awkward
Avoids or refuses writing tasks consistently
Cannot write any letters from memory by year-end
📖

First Grade (Age 6–7)

Often called the most critical year for reading. Children crack the phonics code, build fluency, and begin reading independently.

🔤 Phonics

  • Decodes long vowel patterns (CVCe: "cake," "bike")
  • Reads consonant blends and digraphs (st, bl, ch, sh, th)
  • Reads r-controlled vowels (car, her, bird)
  • Reads 100+ sight words accurately
  • Begins to read multisyllabic words

⚡ Fluency

  • Reads 50–80 words per minute by year end
  • Reads with some expression and appropriate phrasing
  • Self-corrects when reading doesn't make sense
  • Reading becomes less labored

💬 Vocabulary

  • Understands root words and simple affixes (un-, re-, -ful)
  • Uses context clues to figure out unknown words
  • Expressive vocabulary reaches ~3,000 words

🧠 Comprehension

  • Retells story with beginning, middle, end
  • Identifies main character and problem/solution
  • Answers inferential questions ("Why did she feel sad?")
  • Compares and contrasts two stories

✏️ Writing & Encoding

  • Writes upper and lowercase letters legibly
  • Encodes (spells) CVC words correctly (cat, sit, hop)
  • Spells most high-frequency words correctly in writing
  • Writes phonetically plausible spellings for unknown words
  • Writes 2–3 complete sentences independently
  • Uses spaces between words consistently
  • Begins to use periods and capital letters
  • Letter formation is mostly consistent (not mirrored)
🏠 What You Can Do at Home
🔊

Read Aloud Together Daily

Even when kids can read independently, reading aloud to them builds vocabulary, comprehension, and love of books. Aim for 20 minutes daily.

🔁

Repeated Reading

Have your child read the same short passage 3 times. Timing them (gently!) and charting progress builds fluency and motivation.

📝

Sound-Spell-Write

Say a word, ask your child to segment it into sounds, then write it saying each sound aloud as they go. This encoding practice powerfully reinforces both reading and spelling simultaneously.

📓

Daily Writing Practice

1–2 sentences in a simple journal every day builds encoding and composition together. Don't correct invented spelling — note it privately and praise the effort. Accuracy follows phonics knowledge.

⚠ First Grade Red Flags

Still cannot decode simple CVC words mid-year
Reads very slowly — guessing at nearly every word
Persistent letter/number reversals after age 7
Cannot retell a simple story in order
Significant avoidance of reading tasks
Reading is significantly below grade-level peers by year-end
Cannot write a complete sentence independently by year-end
Spelling is random — not phonetically close (e.g., "xqr" for "cat")
Handwriting is very slow, extremely labored, or illegible
Strong avoidance of any writing tasks; frequently says hand hurts
🏃

Second Grade (Age 7–8)

Fluency accelerates. Reading becomes more automatic. Children begin to "read to learn" alongside "learning to read."

🔤 Phonics/Decoding

  • Decodes vowel teams (ea, oa, ai, ou, ow)
  • Reads longer multisyllabic words by chunking
  • Understands silent letters (kn, wr, mb)
  • Spells many high-frequency words correctly

⚡ Fluency

  • Reads 90–110 words per minute by year end
  • Reads with expression, volume, and phrasing
  • Decoding is largely automatic on grade-level text

💬 Vocabulary

  • Uses prefixes/suffixes to understand new words
  • Understands multiple-meaning words
  • Uses a dictionary with support

🧠 Comprehension

  • Identifies main idea and supporting details
  • Makes inferences from text evidence
  • Reads both fiction and informational text
  • Summarizes key events/information

✏️ Writing & Encoding

  • Writes 3–5 sentences on a topic independently
  • Spells most CVC and CVCe words correctly
  • Applies common phonics patterns in spelling (ai, ea, oa)
  • Uses punctuation (periods, question marks, exclamation)
  • Begins to use adjectives and descriptive language in writing
  • Handwriting is legible and mostly consistent in size
  • Can edit own writing for basic errors with prompting
🏠 What You Can Do at Home
📰

Read Nonfiction Too

Many struggling readers do well with informational books about topics they love — dinosaurs, space, animals. All reading counts!

🎧

Audiobooks + Text

Following along in a book while listening builds fluency and vocabulary for kids who struggle to read at grade level. Not a crutch — it's a scaffold.

✍️

Write Real Things

Cards to grandparents, a wish list, a pet diary, a comic strip. Authentic writing tasks build motivation and encoding. When they ask how to spell a word, say "sound it out first, then I'll help."

🔀

Word Sorts for Spelling

Write words on index cards and sort by spelling pattern. Research shows word sorts are more effective than copying words for building lasting spelling knowledge.

⚠ Second Grade Red Flags

Reading fewer than 70 WCPM by mid-year
Cannot spell most CVC words correctly in writing
Still sounding out high-frequency words one letter at a time
Cannot identify the main idea of a short passage
Significant gap between listening comprehension and reading comprehension
Writing is extremely brief (1–2 words) compared to oral ability
Handwriting requires enormous effort; letters inconsistent in size/direction
Spelling bears no phonetic relationship to the target word
📝

Third Grade (Age 8–9)

The "fourth grade slump" is real — but preventable. Grade 3 is the last intensive phonics year and the first major assessment checkpoint.

🔤 Word Study

  • Decodes complex patterns (dge, tch, igh, ough)
  • Reads 3–4 syllable words fluently
  • Understands Greek/Latin roots (bio, graph, port)
  • Spells most grade-level words correctly

⚡ Fluency

  • Reads 110–130 words per minute by year end
  • Reads with full prosody (expression, rhythm)
  • Adjusts rate based on text difficulty

💬 Vocabulary

  • Uses context + word parts to decode meaning
  • Understands figurative language (idioms, similes)
  • Expressive vocabulary 7,000–10,000 words

🧠 Comprehension

  • Compares perspectives across texts
  • Identifies text structures (cause/effect, compare)
  • Synthesizes information from multiple sources
  • Reads chapter books independently

✏️ Writing & Encoding

  • Writes a structured paragraph with topic sentence + details
  • Applies complex spelling patterns (igh, dge, tch) in writing
  • Uses commas, apostrophes, and quotation marks appropriately
  • Writes in multiple genres: narrative, opinion, informational
  • Can plan, draft, and revise writing with guidance
  • Handwriting is automatic — not effortful — freeing attention for ideas
  • Spelling is mostly conventional; errors are phonetically logical

Background knowledge is a hidden driver of comprehension. Let kids spend a week obsessing over volcanoes, ancient Egypt, or whatever they love. It builds the mental model reading needs.

📖

Read Two Books at Once

One easy/fun book they read independently + one at/above level you read together. This keeps motivation high while building skills.

🗺

Story Mapping + Writing

After reading a chapter, draw a quick map: character, problem, key event, solution. Then have them write a 3-sentence summary. Reading and writing reinforce each other powerfully at this stage.

✉️

Real Audience Writing

A letter to an author, a review on a kids' book site, an email to a grandparent. Writing for real audiences builds motivation and craft — spelling and mechanics improve when meaning matters.

⚠ Third Grade Red Flags

Reading more than 1 year below grade level
Cannot read chapter books independently
Significant reading avoidance / homework battles every night
No progress despite tutoring or extra support
Oral comprehension is much stronger than reading comprehension
Written output is far shorter than what child can express orally
Handwriting still very slow, painful, or illegible
Avoids writing to the point of distress; extreme pencil-task frustration
Spelling is inconsistent — same word spelled differently in one paragraph
🎓

Grades 4–5 and Beyond (Age 9+)

Reading to learn. Complex vocabulary, informational text, and critical thinking become central. Students who aren't fluent by Grade 4 need intensive support.

⚡ Fluency

  • Grade 4: 130–150 WCPM
  • Grade 5: 140–160 WCPM
  • Adjusts pace and tone for different texts
  • Reading is largely effortless/automatic

💬 Vocabulary

  • Acquires ~3,000 new words per year
  • Understands domain-specific vocabulary
  • Uses multiple strategies to understand unknown words

🧠 Comprehension

  • Analyzes author's purpose and point of view
  • Evaluates evidence and reasoning in nonfiction
  • Synthesizes information across multiple sources
  • Reads complex literary texts with themes

🔤 Advanced Word Study

  • Analyzes Greek/Latin roots systematically
  • Understands derivational morphology
  • Applies spelling rules across genres of writing
🏠 What You Can Do at Home
📰

Read Real-World Texts

Menus, news articles (Newsela.com), instruction manuals, sports statistics. Real-world reading builds motivation and shows why literacy matters.

🗣

Discuss Big Ideas

"What's the author's argument here? Do you agree?" Socratic discussions at home build the critical thinking comprehension requires.

🔭

Interest-Led Reading

A struggling reader who is obsessed with soccer will practice more reading from soccer magazines than any assigned book. Follow their interests fiercely.

🚨

Seek Evaluation Now if Needed

A child still struggling to decode in Grade 4+ needs a comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation. Dyslexia is diagnosable and highly treatable with Orton-Gillingham-based instruction.

Free Screening Tools

Monitor Your Child's Progress

These research-validated, freely available tools help you understand your child's literacy development and identify areas that may need more attention.

⚠️

Important: These Tools Are Not Diagnostic

None of the screeners on this page can diagnose dyslexia, a learning disability, or any other condition. They are informal tools designed to help parents observe their child's skills, notice patterns over time, and have more informed conversations with teachers and specialists.

A score below a benchmark does not mean something is "wrong" with your child. Many factors affect performance on any given day — anxiety, fatigue, unfamiliarity with the format, and normal developmental variation. What matters is the pattern you see across multiple checks, over time.

Use these tools to understand your child's needs more deeply, to guide targeted support at home, and to flag concerns for qualified educators or specialists — not to reach conclusions on your own. If you have persistent concerns, request a formal evaluation through your school or a licensed educational psychologist.

💡
How to use screeners well: Screen every 3–6 months and track the results over time. Bring your notes and scores to parent-teacher conferences. Frame it as: "I noticed this at home — does it match what you're seeing in school?" You are gathering information, not making a diagnosis.

⚡ How to Do an ORF Check at Home

Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) is one of the strongest quick indicators of overall reading health. You need two things: an unseen grade-level passage + a timer. Here's the exact process:

  1. Get a fresh passage your child has NOT practiced — use the free sources below (Acadience, Mr. Anker, k12reader)
  2. Set a timer for exactly 1 minute. Have your child read aloud while you follow along on your own copy
  3. Mark errors: skipped words, substituted words, words where child hesitates 3+ seconds. Self-corrections and dialect differences are NOT errors.
  4. Calculate: Total words read − errors = CWPM (Correct Words Per Minute)
  5. Do this with 3 different passages and use the middle score for accuracy
  6. Compare to the Hasbrouck-Tindal benchmark table below
💡 If your child scores 10+ CWPM below the 50th percentile for their grade/time of year, flag it for their teacher with your results in hand.
📊 Hasbrouck-Tindal CWPM Benchmarks (2017)

These are the same norms schools use. Find your child's grade and time of year. The 50th percentile is the middle — scores 10+ below warrant attention. View full norms at Reading Rockets ↗

Grade Time of Year 25th %ile 50th %ile ★ 75th %ile
1Mid-year235382
1End of year5382117
2Beginning5179117
2Mid-year72100137
2End of year89117152
3Beginning83107142
3Mid-year99123156
3End of year107133170
4Beginning98123157
4Mid-year112139168
4End of year123153184
5Mid-year128156182
5End of year139168194
6Mid-year140167194
📄 Free Passages to Use for ORF Testing
ToolGradesWhy Use ItFormatLink
Acadience Reading ORF Passages K–6 The exact passages schools use for universal screening. Multiple forms per grade so you can retest. Includes word-count markers every 10 words for easy scoring. Free PDF acadiencelearning.org ↗
Mr. Anker Tests — Fluency Masters 1–8 Free leveled passages with a built-in on-screen stopwatch. Very parent-friendly — print the passage, use the timer on screen. Free Online henryanker.com ↗
k12reader.com Passages K–10 Free printable grade-level reading passages, clearly labeled. Good variety for pulling unseen texts. Free Print k12reader.com ↗
ReadWorks.org K–12 Free leveled passages by grade. Great for nonfiction ORF checks and building background knowledge at the same time. Free Online Print readworks.org ↗
Hasbrouck-Tindal 2017 Full Norms 1–8 Complete percentile norms for comparing your child's CWPM score. Download the full chart free from Reading Rockets. Free PDF readingrockets.org ↗

👂 How to Use the PAST at Home

The PAST (Phonological Awareness Screening Test) by Dr. David Kilpatrick is the best free parent-usable PA screener available. It takes only 4–9 minutes and covers the full developmental sequence from syllables through phoneme manipulation.

  1. Download all 4 forms (A, B, C, D) free from thepasttest.com — use different forms each time you retest
  2. Read the instructions carefully before starting — the corrective feedback procedure is important
  3. Practice on a family member first to get comfortable with the timing and feedback steps
  4. Note where your child stops — each level (G, H, I, J, K) corresponds to an approximate skill level
  5. Bring your completed score sheet to the teacher or specialist meeting
⚠️ The PAST is an informal screener, not a clinical diagnosis. If results suggest significant difficulty, ask the school for a formal evaluation.
ToolAges/GradesWhat It MeasuresFormatLink
PAST — Phonological Awareness Screening Test (Kilpatrick) Pre-K–Grade 5 The gold standard free PA screener. Covers rhyming, syllable segmentation/deletion, onset-rime, phoneme isolation, blending, segmentation, and manipulation. 4 alternate forms. Updated Jan 2024. Free PDF thepasttest.com ↗
Download all 4 forms + instructions free
UCONN Phonological Awareness Screening Pre-K–Grade 2 Rhyming, syllable segmentation, blending, segmentation, and phoneme manipulation. Simpler than the PAST — good starting point for younger children. Free Print literacy.uconn.edu ↗
DIBELS — FSF & PSF Subtests K–Grade 1 First Sound Fluency (FSF) and Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) — the two PA subtests from DIBELS. Timed, with clear benchmarks. Used universally in schools. Free Print dibels.amplify.com ↗
Free download — look for FSF and PSF benchmark materials
Heggerty PA Assessment (Sample) Pre-K–K Quick rhyme, syllable, and phoneme awareness check aligned to the Heggerty curriculum many schools use. Free sample from their site. Free Print heggerty.org ↗
ToolGradesWhat It MeasuresFormatLink
95 Percent Group Phonics Screener K–5 Identifies exactly which phonics patterns a child has and hasn't mastered — short vowels, blends, digraphs, long vowels, r-controlled, etc. Gives a specific skill gap profile. Free PDF 95percentgroup.com ↗
SPELD SA Free Phonics Screener K–6 Free phonics screening and placement tool from SPELD South Australia. Identifies decoding gaps across all major phonics patterns. Widely used internationally. Free PDF speldsa.com.au ↗
DIBELS — NWF & WRF Subtests K–2 Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) tests phonics decoding skills in isolation. Word Reading Fluency (WRF) tests real word decoding speed. Both have clear benchmarks. Free Print dibels.amplify.com ↗
Lexile Level Finder K–12 Find a Lexile measure for your child and search for appropriately leveled books — helps match independent reading to their actual reading level. Free Online lexile.com/find-a-book ↗
Starfall (Observational) Pre-K–Grade 2 Not a formal screener, but watching your child work through Starfall's phonics activities reveals exactly where they get stuck — useful observational data. Free App/Web starfall.com ↗

🔍 About Dyslexia Screeners

These tools identify indicators commonly associated with dyslexia — they do not diagnose it. Dyslexia can only be formally diagnosed through a comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation by a licensed professional. Use these tools to decide whether to pursue a formal evaluation, not as a conclusion.

ToolAgesWhat It FlagsFormatLink
Yale Center for Dyslexia — Parent Checklist Ages 5–18 Research-based checklist of dyslexia indicators by age — from preschool through high school. Widely used and highly respected. Free Online dyslexia.yale.edu ↗
IDA Dyslexia Checklist Ages 5–adult The International Dyslexia Association's comprehensive checklist covering phonological awareness, decoding, fluency, spelling, writing, and oral language indicators. Free PDF dyslexiaida.org ↗
Understood.org Dyslexia Signs Tool Ages 3–adult Interactive age-by-age guide to signs of dyslexia. Also covers how to talk to teachers and how to request an evaluation. Free Online understood.org ↗
EAR — Early Dyslexia Screener (Free Version) Ages 4–7 Brief digital screener targeting early indicators: phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and letter knowledge. Takes about 10 minutes. Free App nessy.com ↗
PAST (Kilpatrick) — PA component Pre-K–Grade 5 Weak phonemic awareness — especially at the manipulation level — is the hallmark of dyslexia. The PAST reveals exactly where this breaks down. Free PDF thepasttest.com ↗
If multiple indicators are present: Submit a written request to your school district for a free psychoeducational evaluation under IDEA. You do not need teacher or school approval to request one — the right is yours. Learn how to request ↗
ToolGradesAreaWhat It MeasuresFormatLink
Acadience Reading ORF Passages K–6 ORF School-standard oral reading fluency passages. Multiple forms per grade. Word markers pre-counted. Free PDF acadiencelearning.org ↗
Mr. Anker — Fluency Masters 1–8 ORF Leveled passages with built-in on-screen stopwatch. Most parent-friendly ORF tool. Free Online henryanker.com ↗
k12reader Fluency Passages K–10 ORF Free printable grade-level passages for unseen ORF checks. Free Print k12reader.com ↗
ReadWorks.org K–12 ORF Free leveled passages by grade for ORF or comprehension checks. Free Online readworks.org ↗
Hasbrouck-Tindal Norms (2017) 1–8 ORF CWPM percentile benchmarks by grade and time of year — same norms schools use. Free PDF readingrockets.org ↗
PAST (Kilpatrick) Pre-K–5 PA Full phonological awareness screener — rhyme through phoneme manipulation. 4 forms, free download. Free PDF thepasttest.com ↗
UCONN PA Screening Pre-K–2 PA Rhyming, syllables, blending, segmentation, manipulation. Free Print literacy.uconn.edu ↗
DIBELS 8th Ed (FSF, PSF, NWF, ORF) K–8 PA ORF The school standard. PA subtests (FSF, PSF) + phonics (NWF) + fluency (ORF). Benchmarks included. Free Print dibels.amplify.com ↗
95% Group Phonics Screener K–5 Phonics Specific phonics pattern mastery — short vowels, blends, digraphs, long vowels, r-controlled, etc. Free PDF 95percentgroup.com ↗
SPELD SA Phonics Screener K–6 Phonics Free decoding gap screener covering all major phonics patterns. Free PDF, internationally used. Free PDF speldsa.com.au ↗
Yale Dyslexia Checklist Ages 5–18 Dyslexia Age-based indicators of dyslexia risk. Not a diagnosis — a flag for further evaluation. Free Online dyslexia.yale.edu ↗
IDA Dyslexia Checklist Ages 5–adult Dyslexia Comprehensive indicator checklist from the International Dyslexia Association. Free PDF dyslexiaida.org ↗
Targeted At-Home Strategies

When a Skill is Weak: What to Do

If screening reveals a weak area, targeted practice at home can make a significant difference — especially in the early grades. Here are evidence-based strategies for each of the five pillars.

🌱 A Note on Home Practice

Short, frequent sessions beat long, exhausting ones. Aim for 10–15 minutes daily rather than an hour on weekends. Always end on success. Reading struggles are emotionally loaded — your child's confidence matters as much as their skill.

👂 Weak Phonological Awareness

Children with weak phonological awareness (PA) struggle to hear and play with the sounds in words. This is the #1 predictor of reading difficulty.

  • Play rhyming games daily — make up silly rhymes together
  • Clap, tap, or jump syllables in words and names
  • "Sound boxes" — draw boxes and tap one per sound in a word
  • Play "first sound" games: "What sound does MOON start with?"
  • Use Heggerty Phonemic Awareness (free sample lessons online)
  • Play "say it slow / say it fast": blend and segment orally
  • Sing nursery rhymes and songs emphasizing word sounds
  • Apps: Phonemic Awareness by Literacy Learning (free version)
🔤 Weak Phonics / Decoding

Children with weak phonics struggle to "sound out" unfamiliar words. They may guess based on first letter or picture, or memorize words by sight without understanding patterns.

  • Use decodable readers matched to what they know (not leveled readers)
  • Practice one phonics pattern per week — don't rush
  • Word sorts: sort words by spelling pattern on index cards
  • Build words with magnetic letters or letter tiles
  • When child is stuck, say "sound it out" not "what word makes sense?"
  • Orton-Gillingham tutoring for persistent difficulty (see resources)
  • Free: Logic of English, Speld SA phonics lessons on YouTube
  • Apps: Hooked on Phonics, Teach Your Monster to Read (free)
⚡ Weak Reading Fluency

Struggling with fluency often means decoding is not yet automatic — the brain is working too hard on individual words to focus on meaning.

  • Repeated reading: same passage 3x, chart improvement
  • Echo reading: you read a sentence, child echoes it back
  • Paired reading: read together aloud simultaneously
  • Reader's theater: fun, performance-based repeated reading
  • Record and listen back: kids love hearing themselves improve
  • Audiobooks while following the text (Audible + printed book)
  • Don't rush past unknown words — proper decoding builds fluency long-term
  • Free Reader's Theater scripts at ReadingA-Z.com
💬 Weak Vocabulary

Children with weak vocabulary often understand stories but miss key nuances, struggle with academic texts, and have limited expressive language.

  • Read aloud books above their reading level to expose new vocabulary
  • Explain unfamiliar words during read-alouds — don't skip them
  • "Word of the day" — use it in sentences all day
  • Play word games: Scrabble, Bananagrams, 20 Questions
  • Watch documentaries and discuss: "What does 'nocturnal' mean?"
  • Use "juicy words" — celebrate interesting language when you encounter it
  • Semantic mapping: draw a web showing how words relate
  • Visit new places and describe experiences with rich vocabulary
🧠 Weak Comprehension

Some children decode well but don't understand what they read. This is often a vocabulary or background knowledge issue — or a lack of taught comprehension strategies.

  • Before reading: preview pictures, title, predict what it's about
  • During reading: pause and ask "what's happening so far?"
  • Teach "think-alouds" — model your own comprehension process
  • Use story maps to visualize narrative structure
  • Build background knowledge on topics before reading about them
  • Ask inferential questions: "Why do you think she did that?"
  • Summarize: "Can you tell me the most important thing you just read?"
  • Connect to real life: "Does this remind you of anything we did?"
Writing, Handwriting & Encoding

Writing Is Reading in Reverse

Reading (decoding) and writing (encoding) are two sides of the same coin. When a child writes a word — hearing its sounds, connecting them to letters, and forming those letters on paper — they reinforce the exact same neural pathways that decoding uses. Supporting writing at home is one of the highest-leverage things you can do for literacy.

🔗 The Writing–Reading Connection

👋→✍️
Encoding reinforces decoding

When children write a word by sounding it out, they cement phoneme-grapheme connections more durably than reading alone.

🤛→🧠
Handwriting supports reading

Research shows that forming letters by hand activates reading circuits in the brain more strongly than typing. Letter formation and letter recognition are deeply linked.

🔞→💡
Spelling = applied phonics

Spelling is not separate from phonics — it is phonics applied in reverse. A child who cannot spell a word reliably has not yet fully secured that phonics pattern.

✍️→📖
Fluent handwriting frees cognition

When handwriting becomes automatic, working memory is freed for composing ideas, organizing thoughts, and building more complex sentences.

📅 Writing Milestones by Age

Fine Motor Foundations (Birth–2)

  • Develops pincer grasp (thumb + index finger) by 9–12 months
  • Scribbles spontaneously with crayon by 15–18 months
  • Imitates horizontal and vertical lines by 24 months
  • Shows interest in mark-making on any surface

What Supports Pre-Writing

  • Stacking blocks and manipulating small objects builds hand strength
  • Chunky crayons and fat markers are developmentally appropriate
  • Tearing paper, play dough, and finger painting build the muscles writing needs
  • Opening/closing containers and self-feeding with utensils builds grip

Milestones Ages 3–4

  • Holds crayon with emerging tripod grip (3 fingers)
  • Draws circles, crosses, and simple shapes
  • Copies letters in own name; may write some independently
  • "Writes" stories through drawing + scribble from left to right
  • Shows consistent hand preference usually by age 4

At-Home Activities

  • Trace letters in sand, shaving cream, or a rice tray — fun and low-pressure
  • Vertical writing surfaces (easel, chalkboard) build shoulder stability needed for writing
  • Magnetic letters for building words without pencil pressure
  • Play dough: rolling, pinching, squeezing builds the exact fine motor muscles writing requires
  • Provide crayons, chalk, markers, and paint freely — all count as pre-writing

Kindergarten Writing Milestones

  • Writes first and last name independently
  • Writes most uppercase + emerging lowercase letters
  • Uses invented/phonetic spelling ("MI KAT" = "my cat") — this is healthy!
  • Writes left-to-right with some spacing between words
  • Writes + illustrates a simple 1–2 sentence story
  • Uses dynamic tripod or adapted pencil grip comfortably

At-Home Activities

  • "Sound then write": say the word, segment it aloud, write one letter per sound
  • Morning message: write one sentence together each morning
  • Label things around the house — child writes the labels
  • Proper letter formation matters now — use HWT or UFLI formation guides
  • Never penalize invented spelling — celebrate the phonological reasoning it shows

Grade 1 Writing Milestones

  • Writes 2–3 complete sentences independently
  • Encodes CVC + CVCe words correctly (cat, cake, bike)
  • Spells 25–50 high-frequency words conventionally
  • Uses spaces between words + beginning punctuation
  • Letter formation becoming automatic — not effortful
  • Writes phonetically plausible spellings for unknown words

At-Home Activities

  • Dictation: say 3 words, child writes them, check together. The single most powerful phonics + encoding activity you can do.
  • Daily journal — 1 sentence minimum, you write a prompt, they write the response
  • Write a real letter to someone they love — authentic purpose builds motivation
  • Word family writing: "cat, bat, sat, hat" — hearing + writing the pattern simultaneously cements it

Grade 2 Writing Milestones

  • Writes 3–5 sentences on a focused topic
  • Applies vowel team spelling patterns (ai, ea, oa, ow)
  • Uses punctuation accurately (. ? !)
  • Begins using adjectives and descriptive language
  • Handwriting is legible and reasonably fast
  • Begins to self-edit with prompting

At-Home Activities

  • Word sort + write: sort words by pattern, then write a sentence using 2 words from each category
  • Book response journal: "one thing I noticed + one question I have"
  • Story map + summary: map the story visually, then write a 3-sentence summary
  • If handwriting is still very labored, this is the right time to ask for an OT referral

Grade 3 Writing Milestones

  • Writes a structured paragraph (topic + details + closing)
  • Writes in multiple genres: narrative, opinion, informational
  • Spelling is largely conventional; errors are phonetically logical
  • Handwriting is automatic — attention is fully on content and ideas
  • Uses commas, apostrophes, quotation marks correctly
  • Can plan, draft, and revise writing with guidance

At-Home Activities

  • Write for real audiences: reviews, letters, emails, book recommendations
  • "Teach me" writing: after a topic deep-dive, write an informational paragraph explaining it
  • Oral rehearsal before writing: talk through ideas first — reduces cognitive load significantly
  • One-thing editing: after writing, look for ONE type of error at a time (periods, then capitals, then spelling)
✍️ Handwriting: Why It Matters & How to Support It

Research consistently shows that handwriting activates reading brain circuits more strongly than typing in developing readers. Children who practice proper letter formation also recognize letters faster when reading. The two skills are neurologically linked — this is why science-of-reading-aligned curricula like UFLI and HWT teach letter formation explicitly alongside phonics.

Formation habits built early become automatic. Letters should start at the correct point and move in the correct direction. Incorrect habits formed early are hard to undo and slow down writing fluency later. Consistent, correct formation built in Pre-K and K pays dividends for years.

✅ Pencil Grip

Dynamic tripod grip (thumb, index, middle finger) is ideal. Fist-gripping past age 4 warrants attention. Triangular pencils and rubber grips can help — consult an OT if grip causes pain or avoidance.

✅ Letter Formation

Most letters start at the top. Teach in formation families (straight lines, then curves, then mixed). Consistent starting points prevent b/d reversals. Never let incorrect formation habits solidify.

✅ Paper Position

Tilt paper ~30° for right-handers; tilt the opposite way for left-handers. Stabilize paper with the non-writing hand. This reduces fatigue and wrist strain significantly.

✅ Seated Posture

Feet flat on floor, hips back in chair, table at elbow height. Poor posture causes fatigue and pain — often misread as laziness or resistance when it is actually a physical barrier.

📚 Free & Low-Cost Handwriting Resources
ResourceBest ForWhat It OffersCostLink
Handwriting Without Tears (HWT) Pre-K–Grade 5 The most widely used school handwriting program. Research-backed, multisensory. Free letter formation guides and parent tips available without purchasing the full curriculum. Free samples lwtears.com ↗
UFLI Foundations (includes letter formation) K–Grade 2 The free UFLI curriculum integrates explicit letter formation instruction into every phonics lesson — decoding and handwriting taught together as they should be. Free ufli.education.ufl.edu ↗
k5learning Handwriting Worksheets Pre-K–Grade 3 Free printable handwriting worksheets for individual letters, words, and sentences. Print as many as needed for targeted at-home formation practice. Free k5learning.com ↗
Donna Young Handwriting Pages Pre-K–Grade 5 Enormous free collection of printable handwriting practice pages — manuscript, D'Nealian, and cursive. Print exactly what your child needs at no cost. Free donnayoung.org ↗
FCRR Handwriting Activities K–Grade 2 The Florida Center for Reading Research's free student center activities include print awareness and handwriting components aligned to the science of reading. Free fcrr.org ↗

⚠️ Red Flags for Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is a learning disability affecting the physical and/or linguistic aspects of written expression. It frequently co-occurs with dyslexia (~50% overlap) but can also occur independently. Like dyslexia, it is neurobiological and completely unrelated to intelligence or effort. These flags warrant a conversation with your child's school:

Handwriting is extremely slow and effortful compared to peers
Written output far shorter than what child can express orally
Awkward, painful, or extremely tight pencil grip despite coaching
Letters inconsistent in size, spacing, or formation within same piece
Mixes uppercase and lowercase letters randomly
Persistent letter reversals (b/d, p/q) past age 7–8
Spelling wildly inconsistent — same word different ways in one piece
Child frequently complains hand hurts when writing
Strong, distressed avoidance of all writing and drawing tasks
Difficulty with fine motor tasks generally (buttons, scissors, laces)
Verbal/oral ability is strong; written work doesn't reflect that at all
Does not establish dominant hand preference by age 5–6
If you see multiple flags: Request an occupational therapy (OT) evaluation through your school — free under IDEA. An OT assesses fine motor skills, sensory processing, and handwriting and provides targeted support. You can also request a full psychoeducational evaluation to understand the complete learning profile. Learn more about dysgraphia at Understood.org ↗
When You Need More Support

Resources for Parents & Educators

If your child is significantly behind, not making progress, or you suspect dyslexia or a related reading disability, these organizations and resources can help you navigate next steps.

🆓 Free Teaching Tools 🔬 Research & Science of Reading ⚖️ Advocacy & Rights 📚 Books & Programs
🆓 Free Phonics Curriculum

UFLI Foundations (University of Florida)

A completely free, research-based structured literacy curriculum from the University of Florida Literacy Institute. Covers K–2 phonics instruction in 200+ explicit lessons. One of the best free SOR-aligned programs available anywhere.

ufli.education.ufl.edu ↗
🆓 Free Student Activities

Florida Center for Reading Research (FCRR)

Hundreds of free, downloadable student center activities organized by phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension — all SOR-aligned. Also includes free assessment tools and parent guides. Ideal for at-home supplementation.

fcrr.org ↗
🎴 Phonics Teaching Tool

Secret Stories® (Katie Garner)

A highly engaging, brain-based phonics system that uses "secret" story mnemonics to help children remember complex phonics patterns. Especially effective for kids who struggle with abstract letter-sound rules. Used widely in K–3 classrooms and by homeschool families.

thesecretstories.com ↗
📖 Free Curriculum & Guides

Reading Rockets (PBS)

One of the best free parent-facing literacy sites available. Covers every aspect of reading development with research summaries, teaching strategies, book lists by skill, expert Q&A videos, and activity guides by age.

readingrockets.org ↗
🆓 Free Phonemic Awareness

Heggerty Phonemic Awareness (Free Samples)

The Heggerty curriculum is used in thousands of schools. Free sample lessons and a free assessment tool are available on their site. Excellent for Pre-K through Grade 2 daily phonemic awareness warm-ups at home.

heggerty.org ↗
📱 Free App

Teach Your Monster to Read

Award-winning, completely free phonics game covering all major letter-sound patterns for ages 3–7. Made by the Usborne Foundation and rigorously tested. Research shows it accelerates phonics learning significantly when used alongside classroom instruction.

teachyourmonstertoread.com ↗
📱 Free App

Starfall

Free web and app-based phonics activities for Pre-K through Grade 2. Not a screener, but watching your child navigate Starfall is a great observational tool — you'll quickly see where they get stuck and where they're confident.

starfall.com ↗
📖 Free Books

Open Library (Internet Archive)

Free, legal digital borrowing of thousands of children's books including many decodable readers. A remarkable free resource for families who want more reading material at home without cost.

archive.org/openlibrary ↗
🔬 Science of Reading Hub

The Reading League

The leading SOR advocacy and professional learning organization in the US. Their free "Curriculum Evaluation Rubric" lets you check whether your child's school program is science-aligned. Excellent parent resources and state advocacy guides.

thereadingleague.org ↗
🔬 Research Institute

Haskins Laboratories

One of the world's leading research institutions on reading and the brain. Their public-facing resources explain the neuroscience behind why phonics and phonological awareness matter — great for understanding the "why" behind SOR.

haskinslabs.org ↗
🎓 Research Center

Yale Center for Dyslexia & Creativity

Dr. Sally Shaywitz's center. Free screeners, age-by-age checklists, and research summaries written for parents. Essential if you suspect dyslexia — also excellent for understanding reading development generally.

dyslexia.yale.edu ↗
🔬 What Works

What Works Clearinghouse (IES)

The US Department of Education's research review database. Search any reading program your child's school uses and see the actual evidence rating. Helps you evaluate whether your school's approach is evidence-based.

ies.ed.gov/wwc ↗
🏛 Organization

International Dyslexia Association (IDA)

The premier organization for dyslexia support. Find IDA-certified structured literacy tutors (CALT/CALP), access free fact sheets, locate your state branch, and use their knowledge and practice standards as a reference for what good intervention looks like.

dyslexiaida.org ↗
⚖️ Advocacy & Rights

Understood.org

Expert-reviewed, parent-focused guides on learning and attention differences, IEPs, 504 plans, how to request evaluations, and how to navigate the school system as an advocate for your child. One of the most practical parent advocacy resources available.

understood.org ↗
🏫 Your Legal Rights

Request a Free School Evaluation (IDEA)

If you suspect a learning disability, federal law (IDEA) gives you the right to request a free, comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation from your school district — in writing, at any time. The school has 60 days to respond. You do not need permission from a teacher.

How to request in writing ↗
🎯 Find a Tutor

Academic Language Therapy Association (ALTA)

National directory of certified Orton-Gillingham and structured literacy specialists (CALT, AOGPE). Use this to find a trained tutor near you — especially important for children with dyslexia who need multisensory, structured literacy instruction.

altaread.org ↗
🏠 At-Home Intervention Program

Barton Reading & Spelling System

A parent-delivered, Orton-Gillingham-based tutoring system specifically designed to be used at home without a teaching background. Expensive but highly effective for children with dyslexia. Many families report transformative results after schools have failed to help.

bartonreading.com ↗
📚 Essential Book for Parents

"Overcoming Dyslexia" — Dr. Sally Shaywitz

The single most important book for parents of struggling readers. Explains how the brain learns to read, why some children struggle, and what evidence-based intervention actually looks like. Updated 2020 edition available.

Find on Amazon ↗
📚 Book for Parents

"Equipped for Reading Success" — Dr. David Kilpatrick

Kilpatrick's accessible parent and teacher guide to phonological awareness and word-level reading. Explains exactly why some children struggle to decode and what to do about it. Highly practical with activity ideas throughout.

Find on Amazon ↗

📋 If You Suspect Dyslexia or a Reading Disability

Dyslexia affects approximately 15–20% of the population and is neurobiological in origin. It is not related to intelligence. Early identification (ideally by Grade 2) leads to dramatically better outcomes. Effective treatment requires structured literacy instruction using an Orton-Gillingham-based approach — this is multisensory, systematic, sequential, and explicit. Request a psychoeducational evaluation from your school or a private educational psychologist. Bring any screener results you've collected. Know your rights under IDEA and Section 504.